When a farm has more manure than can be properly applied to acreage that they own or rent, other options need to be considered.
Hire a Certified Manure Hauler
Some producers may contract with a hauler to remove the manure. The hauler may take the manure to a centralized composting facility or spread the manure on farmland. In some states a manure hauler must be certified to haul manure off the farm and on to the highways. Be sure your hauler is certified to avoid potential legal liability if there is an accidental spill by the hauler.
Even if you contract with a hauler, manure will need to be stored in between visits. For information on selecting a site and building an appropriate structure, see Storing Manure on Small Farms : Options for Storage.
Dumpsters
For small farms, dumpsters may be used to store manure until it is removed. Dumpsters are placed near the stable and are replaced with an empty dumpster when full. The dumpster should be placed on a concrete pad or other impervious surface that allows for the collection of any liquids that leach out. Although expensive, dumpsters may be a viable option when there is inadequate land for spreading and the circumstances do not lend to composting.
Marketing the Manure or Compost
Farmers may also sell or give their manure away, composted or noncomposted, for off-farm use. Gardeners are frequently willing to take (or even buy) composted horse manure. Crop farmers may be willing to let you spread manure on their land during certain times of year.
Photo courtesy Chris Henry, University of Nebraska
Proper pasture management is important to holistic farm management. Grazing animals deposit manure on pastures and exercise areas. This manure ultimately will either be incorporated into the pasture soil or if the pasture is poorly vegetated it may be a runoff risk. So, the first principle of managing manure with grazing animals is to ensure productive pastures. Productive pastures will reduce the risks of manure runoff by providing ground cover that will prevent soil erosion. These pastures will also take up nutrients from manure and use them for crop growth. Less productive pastures will not do this. ( ABC’s of Pasture Grazing) ( Spanish Language Version)
What Makes a Pasture Productive?
What are some elements of productive pasture management? Proper soil health and fertility will ensure a good growth environment for pasture species, both forage and legume. Manure can help to improve and maintain soil fertility by providing needed nutrients, (N, P, and K) and organic matter. These nutrients will help promote growth of grasses and legumes while organic matter from manure will help to provide soil structure, protection against erosion and improve natural soil fertility. Choosing the appropriate grass and legume species will help optimize forage management and pasture growth. (see More Equine Pasture Management Materials)
Pasture rotation is also practiced in order to optimize plant growth and utilization by grazing vegetation at the proper heights and allowing for proper rest and regrowth. Activities such as brush hogging or clipping, dragging to break up manure clumps, fertilizing and over seeding are also necessary components of pasture forage management.
Sacrifice Areas
Exercise or sacrifice areas are designated locations for feeding, watering, exercise and relaxation for times when pastures are not accessible due to lack of growth (winter or drought), flooding, etc. (see Exercise or Sacrifice Lots for Horses) Generally, these areas have little or no vegetation. It is important that manure not be spread in these areas. They are meant to be sacrificed for animal activities in order to protect the remaining pastures. Runoff from sacrifice areas should also be managed to reduce the risk of water pollution caused by sediment and nutrients from these areas.
Erosion
Erosion is a problem for several reasons. First, nutrients attach to soil particles. When they wash away, the Phosphorus causes algae blooms in freshwater. When that algae dies, oxygen in the water adheres to it, producing a lack of oxygen in the water for fish and other aquatic life. The sediment from erosion also covers nesting habitat for aquatic life and reduces visibility for desirable sport fish like walleye. Lastly, the runoff can contain bacteria from the manure that can be harmful to people downstream.
Erosion problems on small farms are often different than large farms. On large farms, most erosion may be sheet or rill erosion running off large fields. On smaller farms, erosion may more often be a gully where animals cross a stream. Or it could be poorly vegetated pastures that provide poor ground cover during precipitation. Fencing, watering and feeding sites, presence or absence of field buffers, and stream crossings can all influence erosion on a small livestock farm.
CC2.5 LPELC
This pasture management section provides information about proper pasture management in order to reduce water quality, manure runoff and soil erosion risks that may be associated with poor pastures. The following links provide more specific information:
Equipment For Handling and Applying Manure On Small Farms
A tractor and a manure spreader are needed to ensure proper field application of stored manure. Some small farms may be able to utilize small ground-drive spreaders that can be pulled behind an all-terrain vehicle or pickup instead of a tractor. Pull-type spreaders are traditionally used, although truck-mounted spreaders are sometimes used on larger farms.
Solid manure can be removed from storage using front-end loaders, scrapers, or other handling equipment. Small or limited-resource farms can get by with equipment as simple as a wheelbarrow and pitch fork. The size of the equipment influences the time required to load, haul, and spread manure. For more information see Nutrient Planning on Small Farms.
Environmental Considerations When Spreading Manure
Manure should not be spread where and when there is any risk for water pollution, such as near streams, ponds, wells or other waterbodies. Your local soil and water conservation district or Natural Resources Conservation Service office can also help identify if additional special protection areas exist on farmland and bordering properties.
Stored manure should be applied to the soil in a thin layer to speed drying and discourage fly breeding. Spreading incompletely composted manure on horse pastures should be avoided due to the risk of infecting pastures with internal parasites. Manure should be spread at agronomic rates (rates equal to or less than plants will use in a year). When stockpiled manure is spread on crop fields, the application may not meet the total needs of the crop. Each source of horse manure will vary, especially when different bedding sources are used. Typically, a ton of horse manure will contain eleven pounds of nitrogen, two pounds of phosphorous, and eight pounds of potassium. Average values are given in the table below and can help to determine the number of acres needed to properly apply the horse manure. Refer to your local Cooperative Extension office to get a list of laboratories that will do manure analysis.
Nutrient Content of Horse Manure
Manure
Percent Solids
Nitrogen – N
Phosphorus – P2O5
Potassium – K2O
(tons/year)
%
(lb./year)
(lb./year)
(lb./year)
9.1
22.0
102
40
84
When Should Manure Be Land Applied?
Spring is the preferred time to apply manure. Forage or hay crops generally provide the greatest flexibility in planning land application operations. Cool season grasses can generally utilize manure nutrients from early spring to late fall, and application equipment generally does not adversely affect the crop regardless of its growth stage. However, spreading manure on wet soils should be discouraged as it leads to soil compaction and tearing of the top soil.
Manure Nutrient Availability
When spread, not all nutrients in manure are immediately available for plant use. The amount of nitrogen available is a function of the percentage of nitrogen in the manure, whether or not it is incorporated in the soil, and the rate of organic matter decomposition of the manure. Nitrogen availability (during the first growing season) will range from 35% of the total nitrogen when manure is spread on the soil surface to 60% when immediately incorporated into the soil. Availabilities of phosphorus from phosphate (P2O5) and potassium from potash (K2O) are commonly set at 80% and 90% of totals, respectively. For links to publications that include more detailed information and formulas for estimating nutrient availability from manure see Manure Nutrient Management Educational and Informational Resources.
Manure Containing Wood Shavings or Sawdust May Require Additional Management
Horse manure often has an additional consideration when it comes to nutrient availability. Sawdust or wood shavings are high-carbon materials that require a great deal of nitrogen to break down. This process can tie up available nitrogen, rendering it unavailable to plants or crops. A fact sheet on how to manage horse manure that contains wood shavings or sawdust is Horse Manure Management: The Nitrogen Enhancement System.
Too Much Manure?
In situations where land application is not an option or the farm has more manure than can be appropriately utilized, the producer will need to consider Off-Farm Manure Disposal options.
Accumulated manure can cause health, odor, pest, and water quality problems if not properly managed. One option is to collect the waste daily, load it in a spreader, and spread it on cropland, hayland, or pasture (often referred to as a “daily haul” system). This is time consuming and also has to be done regardless of the soil moisture, weather, or time of year. Spreading during rain, on saturated or frozen soils can cause compaction or lead to offsite runoff of manure. Growing crops can also be damaged during spreading.
The alternative to daily spreading is to stockpile or store the manure for a period of time, at which point it may be spread or hauled away and utilized beneficially elsewhere. Even though the number of livestock on your farm may not be large, enough manure will be generated to pose a problem if planning is not done.
Example: A single horse can produce 50 pounds of manure per day which translates to 11 cubic yards and 9 tons annually. The manure and bedding produced by this horse in a year can exceed 25 cubic yards. This would require a storage area of about 12 feet by 12 feet with an accumulated depth of 3 to 5 feet for one year of storage, depending how much decomposition and compaction of the manure takes place.
Regardless of the type or size of manure storage, there are a few basic principles to always follow:
Keep the clean water clean. Any up-slope surface run-on should be diverted around the manure storage or animal lots by creating a small berm. Rooftop water can be directed via gutters, downspouts and possibly underground outlets so that it goes around animal lots and manure storage.
Treat the dirty water. Any rainfall landing on the manure pile or the livestock concentration areas should (preferably) be retained in the structure or settling basin. Over time, the water evaporates, leaving behind the solid materials to be collected and spread on fields. The liquid can also be directed to a treatment area, such as a well vegetated filter strip. The plants will slow the flow, settling solids (filtering the runoff) and utilizing the nutrients as they grow. This option requires regular management as the liquid flow may eventually cut a channel and create an unobstructed path to creeks, streams, ponds or other clean water. The solids from the manure may also accumulate and smother the vegetation. The goal is to direct the drainage over the vegetated area as evenly (like a sheet) as possible and regularly harvest the vegetation as hay or silage to remove prevent build up of nutrients.
Avoid flood-prone areas. Flood waters that can reach a manure storage location will transport manure downstream and cause extensive water quality problems.
Accessibility. Store the manure where it is easily accessible to load and unload. Efficiency is important in order to properly manage the manure facility. Make sure you can access the site in all types of weather conditions. If it is difficult to access the site, you are less likely to regularly manage or maintain it.
Avoid steep slopes when siting your storage location. The steeper the slope, the more difficult it is to manage the storage area, and the greater potential for offsite runoff. It may be necessary to build a small dirt berm (do not use manure for the berm) to prevent storm water from leaving the area and running downslope.
If you spread the stored manure on your own land, do so following a nutrient management plan that establishes the spreading rate per acre to match the nutrients available in the manure to the needs of the crop.
Manure Storage Considerations
Storage can be very simple or quite complex; very inexpensive or quite pricey. The choice depends on a number of factors.
Storage siting
The first thing to decide when contemplating storage is the location. The spot has to be very convenient to the animal housing, but there is more to consider. The storage must be located well outside of any stream floodplain, and should have a slight slope for drainage, but not slope so much that runoff can cause problems. It is important to prevent manure from being washed offsite to streams or lakes. Manure contains potential pollutants when it is not managed correctly. The bacteria, phosphorous, nitrogen, and organic matter pose risks to aquatic organisms and humans.
Odor management is another consideration when siting a storage facility. Look at wind direction as relates to dwellings. The final consideration is aesthetics. If possible, keep the facility out of view of neighbors and passers-by. Sometimes a screen of trees and shrubs can help, and also may reduce odor.
Storage sizing
The sizing of a storage facility depends upon three factors:
How many animals are on the farm, and how much of the manure is collected?
What is the time period the storage will be accumulating manure before emptying?
How much money is available for building the facility?
From the weights and volume cited above for a single horse, it is easy to see how a storage facility can get large quickly, with just a few animals. Also consider that the ideal length of time permanent storage should have capacity for is six months; the minimum should be 3 months. For information on how to calculate the amount of manure produced, visit Manure Production and Characteristics.
Options for Manure Storage
Stockpiling
Cost: Low
Stockpiling of manure is just what it sounds like- simply taking the solid manure and soiled livestock bedding and piling it up in a convenient location. This primitive method can be acceptable for the farm with just 1 or 2 horses or several sheep. However, the spot must be compacted and sealed so that rainfall landing on the pile cannot leach pollutants into the soil and ground water. Sometimes gravel in a packed pad works well, or stone dust is used. The area approaching the pad needs to be firm also to prevent rutting in wet periods. Also, the pile should have a very slight slope (1-3%) to facilitate drainage to a vegetated filter strip.
A stockpile can be covered with a plastic tarp to reduce odors, flies, and leaching concerns. Rainfall will run off to the edges and never penetrate the pile. The tarp will need to be anchored securely all around the edges. A filter strip of vegetation or (preferably) a small dirt berm is still needed on the downslope side.
Dry Stack
Cost: Moderate
This is probably the most common and practical choice for the small livestock operation. A dry stack facility has three walls to contain the manure. The best ones have a poured concrete floor. The floor is slightly sloped for drainage out of the facility, and the drainage runs to an adjacent vegetative filter strip. The walls of a dry stack facility will be a minimum of four feet high. The walls, especially the back one opposing the entry, must be stout since the manure will be exerting outward pressure as the pile grows higher. Also, clean out is usually done with a front-end loader, and pushing will be done as the manure is scooped up. The walls can be poured concrete, cinder block, horizontal timbers, or vertical timbers. Secure anchoring below the frost line is crucial.
Composting
Cost: Moderate to High
The treatment of raw manure through composting is gaining in popularity. The final product is crumbly, low odor and resembles rich topsoil. It is often highly marketable. Composting reduces the amount of available nutrients, kills pathogens, reduces odor, and reduces manure volume. However, it requires management. A pile of manure left alone is not composting- it is decomposing, which is a big difference.
Composting requires a balance of nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and liquid. When things are running properly, the center of the pile will reach 140 degrees, which kills pathogens and renders a relatively stable product. An untended decomposing pile has a nearly anaerobic core that produces objectionable odors when broken into. Although the center is often hot, it’s not hot enough to sanitize. Composting requires taking the pile’s temperature, and turning of the pile regularly to mix and aerate. Sometimes it will need water; other times it will need to be covered so it does not become saturated and lower the oxygen level to unacceptable levels.
Turning the pile is usually done with a small tractor equipped with a front bucket loader. There are many ways to set up the composting site. It could just be several long windrows, 4 – 6 feet high, on compacted ground or compacted gravel, or concrete. Or, there may be several small dry stack-type bays connected together side by side, and the manure is moved from one bay to the next, and the manure is mixed and aerated in the process. Manure and bedding, when properly mixed, can be transformed into compost in as little as six weeks.
Cost: Highest
Liquid storage is used by many larger dairy or swine farms. The waste is diluted with stall wash water and pumped to a lagoon or other holding location. From there the liquid effluent and the solids are pumped into an injector tank and spread in the field as a slurry, either sprayed on the surface or injected into the soil. Or, the effluent is spray irrigated and the solids are separated and spread in a conventional fashion. This type of storage and management system is usually the most complex and expensive, and is usually not practical for smaller livestock operations.
Sometimes, the best solution is to simply have a dumpster or some other form of semi portable holding structure, and place the manure in there. When needed, a waste management purveyor can pick it up for beneficial re-use on cropland that can use the organic matter and nutrients. Remember to still have a vegetative filter strip to treat the leachate draining from the dumpster as it drains away.
If the amount of manure being generated daily is small enough, a small manure spreader can serve as the storage device. When full, simply hook up the tractor and spread the waste in the cropland or hayland according to a nutrient management plan. Caution, though- if applying to pastureland, it is important to spread the manure about four weeks before a grazing cycle. Smothering of grasses can occur if the manure is applied too heavily. Parasite eggs in raw manure may cause an infestation problem on pastures.
Vegetated Filter Strip
It is crucial to have a vegetated filter strip to treat the runoff water coming from a manure pile or a concentrated livestock area. The combination of grass uptake, soil filtering and adsorption, and biological processes in the top inches of soil significantly reduces pollution potential of manure runoff. The filter should be established in a vigorous, thick stand of grasses adapted to the soil conditions at the site. Animals should be kept off of it, and it should be hayed at least twice a year to remove nutrients and encourage growth. On a flatter slope, the strip should be a minimum of 30 feet wide, wider if slope is steeper. A better option than a vegetative filter strip is a Vegetative Treatment System. See the article on What is a Vegetative Treatment System? or a runoff containment. To see all the runoff control options, see Do I need to control the barnyard or lot runoff on my small farm?
Managing Stockpiled Dry Manure on Small Farms
Flies and odors from stored manure can be reduced if good management is practiced.
Keep the manure as dry as possible.
Remove manure from the farm regularly during fly breeding season.
Try not to use insecticides or larvacides; naturally occurring fly predators- tiny, non-stinging wasps and parasites, are beneficial to the pile. Wasps are active during fly season and their activity is better in dry manure.
When cleaning out the storage, leave a couple of inches of dry manure over the bottom of the storage area to provide a population of fly parasites and predators. Manure removal can be staggered to leave one section per week to supply fly predators and parasites.
Remove a winter’s stockpile of manure during cold weather (<55°F) before fly breeding season.
Barnyard and Corral Management
Manure should not only be removed from stalls and barns, but corrals, barnyard areas, and sacrifice areas should be regularly cleaned to reduce flies, odor, and the potential for mud. A box scraper, skid loader, or tractor and loader can be used to remove manure built up on the surface of these areas. For more information, see the following publication: Sacrifice Areas.
Author: Fred Kelly, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, New Jersey
Manure is an inevitable byproduct of livestock and poultry production. Manure is a valuable material that can be used as a source of organic matter and fertilizer for crop and pasture production. Manure can also be used as source of energy on the farm through anaerobic digestion to produce biomethane or thermochemical process (such as pyrolysis, gasification, or combustion) to produce heat or electricity. Some of the by-products of energy production can be further processed to produce value added chemicals.
Quantity of Manure Produced
Typically, manure includes excreted material from the animal (feces and urine), used bedding, as well as wasted feed, water (drinking and wash), hair, and soil. The quantity of manure produced depend on several factors including:
animal type (ruminant or non-ruminant),
diet (forage-based or grain-based),
animal age (which can influence the amount of feed consumed),
animal environment,
and animal productivity as well as other factors.
Composition of Manure
The chemical characteristics of manure primarily depend upon the chemical composition of the feed given to the animal. The animal metabolizes the feed to provide itself with energy and produce new body tissues and products. The waste products of metabolism are largely collected in urine and passed out with the feces (which may contain unused feed).
Nutrient requirements by animals vary with animal type and stage of production. Usually, when the animal’s protein requirements decrease, the concentration of protein in the diet can also be decreased, thereby decreasing the concentrations of nitrogen excreted as a percent of body weight. Similarly, increased levels of minerals fed (e.g. copper, phosphorus, sodium, potassium) increase the level of those nutrients in the manure. It is recommended that manure analysis be done regularly especially if diet formulation and major changes in management of the livestock occurs.
Determining Manure Production and Composition
Manure quantities and characteristics can be estimated on an:
as-excreted basis or as
recoverable manure nutrients (the quantity of manure nutrients available for land application or utilization for other purposes).
The nutrient content of manure is influenced by feed intake (which influences the nutrients excreted), manure storage and management choices (which influences the recovery of nutrients), and water additions/evaporation (which influences the concentration of nutrients).
As-Excreted Basis
There are tabulated values that can be used to estimate the amount of manure an animal produces. The American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) has prepared a standard (D384.2) that lists the average quantities of manure and their characteristics. Excreted values are provided in Table 1 and Table 2. These average estimates of manure excreted become obsolete due to changes in animal genetics, feeding program strategies, and available feeds. Table 1 and 2 are representative of typical characteristics in 2002.
Although sampling and the use of tabulated estimates are the most common methods of estimating manure nutrients, ASABE D384.2 provide equations for predicting nutrient excretion (primarily nitrogen and phosphorus), dry matter, and (depending upon species) other potential characteristics have been assembled for beef, dairy, swine, horses, and poultry. Software (listed at the bottom of this page) can simplify the use of these equations.
If you want to calculate quantity of manure produced by your animals based on these equations, here are some guidelines to use to decide when it is appropriate to use the equations to calculate manure excretions:
When you want to develop a comprehensive nutrient management plans specific to your animal feeding operation (AFO).
When you have farm-specific data for your feeding program and animal performance.
When feed intake, feed nutrient concentration, feed digestibility, or animal performance varies from the assumptions used to estimate the typical values in Table 1 and Table 2.
When industry trends have changed from the assumptions used in Table 1.
Otherwise, use the typical values found in Table 1 and Table 2 for the following situations:
When planning estimates are being made on a scale larger than a single farm (e.g. county or regional estimate of nutrient excretion).
When a rough approximation is needed for farm planning.
When farm-specific information of animal performance and feed intake is not available.
Caution: When using the typical as-excreted manure production and characteristics presented in Table 1 and Table 2, the user should recognize that the reported typical values may become obsolete with time due to changes in animal genetics, feeding programs, alternative feeding technologies, and available feeds. In addition, users should also recognize that under current conditions, excretion of nutrients and other related characteristics will vary for individual situations from the currently listed values due to variations in animal feed nutrient intake, animal performance, and individual farm management.
Bedding
Bedding is sometimes included in the manure. To estimate the amount of bedding used, weigh the bedding added to each pen per week and multiply the number of pens and the weeks between cleaning. Estimate the total weight of bedding and manure by adding the amount of manure produced using Table 1 or Table 2 or calculated using equations to the amount of bedding; subtract any liquid drained off i.r. not absorbed by the bedding (neglect drainage if well bedded).
Total Weight = manure weight + bedding weight
To estimate the volume of the manure and bedding, add manure production volume to 50% of the bedding volume. The volume of the bedding is usually reduced by half during use.
Total Volume = manure volume + (bedding volume/2)
As-Removed Manure Production and Characteristics
Many physical, chemical, and biological processes can alter manure characteristics from its original as-excreted form. The as-removed manure production characteristics values are reported in Table 3. These values represent typical values based on available data sources. These estimates may be helpful but have very high variability. The values may be helpful for an individual farm’s long-term planning prior to any samples being available and for planning estimates addressing regional issues. Whenever possible, site-specific samples or other more localized estimates should be used instead of the national tabular estimates. Permitted Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) are required to annually report recovered manure for their individual farm. Use the tabulated values for planning purposes until site-specific values are available.
Manure Handling Characteristics
The handling characteristics of manure vary depending primarily on the solids content (Figure 20-1). Manure is usually classified as liquid, slurry, semi-solid, or solid depending on the total solids content of the manure. The boundary between handling classifications is not fixed but varies with specific composition.
Manure can be classified according to the dry matter content as liquid, slurry, semi-solid and solid.
Liquid manure contains up to 4% solids content and can be handled with irrigation equipment. Liquid manure with this kind of solids content can be obtained by removing larger solids from the manure through some form of solids separation, or adding dilution water. Lagoon treatment systems usually have less than 1% solids if designed and operated properly. Overloaded lagoons can reach up to 2% solids.
Slurry manure contains 4% to 10% solids and may require special pumps for handling. *Semi-solid manure contains between 10 and 20% solids. The manure is too thick to pump.
Solid manure contains 20% solids content or more. This manure can be stacked or be picked up with a fork or bucket loader.
Figure 1. Relative handling characteristics of different types of manure for various animal species (Source: MWPS-18 Section 1, 2004). cc2.5 Jactone Arogo Ogejo
Software
The spreadsheet, Feed Nutrient Management Planning Economics (FNMP$) is a comprehensive program connecting feed ration characteristics, manure storage type and cropping systems impact on the value of manure as a fertilizer. The spreadsheet provides a straightforward approach for estimating manure excretion based on the ASABE equations standard described above. FNMP$ estimates:
manure nutrients
land requirements
labor and equipment application time, and
costs and value for land application.
This is a spreadsheet-based program.
References
MWPS. 2004. Manure Characteristics.MWPS-18 Section 1. MidWest Plan Service, Ames. IA
ASABE. 2005. Manure production and characteristics. ASABE Standard D384.2. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. St. Joseph, MI.
How can small farms make the most efficient use of their feed resources and reduce potential environmental impacts? They do it by managing their feed supplies and animals carefully using some of the tips mentioned below. Farmers also need to pay special attention to nitrogen and phosphorus.
Appropriate Use of Feed Additives
Additives, supplements, hormones, antibiotics, and etc. are generally very effective ways to improve animal performance and efficiency. If used, these should be fed as prescribed on the label, or under the care of a veterinarian.
Examples of additives are:
Ionophores like monensin or bovatec affect fermentation in the bovine (cattle) rumen and improve performance and feed efficiency. (Monensin and bovatec should never be feed to horses!)
Hormones such as anabolic implants and steroids or rBST (recombinant bovine somatotropin) improve production efficiency, growth rate or milk production in cattle. Hormones are not used in pig or poultry production.
Antibiotics, which, when used properly in the diet, can result in improved feed efficiencies and health. Using antibiotics for the purpose of growth promotion and not disease control (called sub-therapeutic use) is under a great deal of scrutiny and is becoming more controversial as scientists look for ways to combat antibiotic-resistance in microbes and pathogens.
Products that improve nutrient efficiency will also reduce excretion relative to production.
How to Incorporate By-Product Feeds in Diets
By-product (often also called co-product) feeds are often used in animal diets. These are by-products of other industries, such as the production of distilled spirits, ethanol, or beer, wheat processing, milling, and soy oil among others. These co-products, such as brewer’s grains, distiller’s grains, soy hulls, and others can make excellent animal feedstuffs.
There are also byproducts from the wheat milling industry, such as wheat bran, middlings, reddog, shorts, etc. By-products from wet corn milling give us high fructose corn syrup and a variety of other corn products including corn gluten feeds and meals. In addition, there are products such as citrus pulp, beet pulp, and whole cottonseed. Some farms even feed expired foods that have been returned to distributors from grocery stores.
One disadvantage of by-products is that their nutrient content is often variable; these feeds should be sampled regularly so estimates of nutrient content can be used in formulating diets. Sometimes, the by-product supplier will provide a nutrient analysis when requested. Advantages of by-products are that they can often be purchased more cheaply than traditional feeds and utilize a material that might otherwise become a part of the waste stream.
Managing Feed Variability
Every load of feed that comes out of the field during harvest or is delivered by the feed company is different from the previous load. Every bale of hay in the summer is different from the previous bale. Every scoop full of grain that is given to a horse or livestock animal is different from the previous container of grain. It is essential that producers get a handle on the variability of their feed and ensure that to the best of their knowledge and ability they are able to balance diets for the nutrients that are in the feeds they are using.
There are feed and forage labs available and feed samples can be sent to these labs to determine nutrient content. In this way diets can be formulated based on the nutrient content of each individual component. It is possible to use published values when nothing else is available. However, these are only averages of many samples and may not reflect actual conditions.
Monitoring Feed and Forage Quality
Every effort should be made to use feeds of a high quality. For ruminants to reach optimum levels of production, it is essential that forages be of the best quality possible. Those too high in fiber, or rained on during production, or that spoil in the silo, will result in lower levels of production, will be more costly to the producer, and may result in greater levels of nutrient loss.
Every extra day beyond the optimum harvest date for hay in the summer will result in a reduction in forage quality and greater costs to the producer. This is an important point to remember; harvesting forage at the optimum time will improve quality, result in greater profitability for the producer, and less waste of feed and nutrients. Feed samples and laboratory analysis
Sick animals are not productive animals, but will continue to consume feed since they have a requirement for body maintenance. They will continue to excrete nutrients in their manure. All animals should be on a regular health and herd management program. They should be vaccinated for disease regularly and monitored for special diseases. To reduce waste, temporarily reduce feed delivery to sick animals and gradually bring it back up to full levels as they recover.
All domestic livestock animals can be affected by parasites. Parasites will infest the intestines and can result in substantial decreases in performance. Whenever this happens, the efficiency of nutrient utilization is going to decline and influence nutrient excretion. All animals should be on a regular de-worming and parasite control schedule.
Toxins in the feed or water may also influence animal production. For example, during a drought year forage quality will often decline, and toxins, such as excess nitrates, may be taken up from the soil by plants and influence animal production. Plant growth stress can also result in the formation of mycotoxins in the feed; this can occur in both feed grains and forages. These toxins can result in decreased production, as well as sickness and death. Whenever toxins are believed to be a problem, it is important to test feed and water supplies to ensure the adequate consumption of uncontaminated feeds and water.
Feed Processing
Processing feed is helpful if animals are to digest and absorb nutrients. In recent years, the use of corn silage kernel processors has increased on dairy farms. Kernel processors typically use physical force to break down each kernel of grain and make the nutrients in the kernel more available to digestive processes. This has been shown to result in a significant increase in production in animals fed these diets.
Feed processing includes grinding, flaking, steam rolling, and other processes that improve the availability of nutrients. For example, sorghum grain or milo is unavailable to ruminant animals and horses without some level of processing, such as grinding or steam flaking. It can be utilized by chickens that have the advantage of the crop and gizzard in their digestive system. If there is any down side to feed processing, it would be over-processing or over-mixing. Over-processing usually means that the feed reached too high a temperature. This causes chemical changes that can offset the benefits and actually tie-up or bind nutrients.
Mixing feeds, particularly forage, for too long of a period of time can break particles down into smaller pieces. These pieces tend to move more quickly through the gastrointestinal tract and not be digested at a level required for optimum utilization and health of the animal. Processed feeds are also more expensive than unprocessed, and might not always be necessary (e.g. oats for horses).
Reducing Feed Waste
A hay bale fed on the ground like this one will result in as much as 40-50% waste. Hay feeders can greatly reduce the loss.
It is common for animals to spill or waste feed. For example, pigs will waste as much as 20% of their diet while eating. This wasted feed is often wet, covered with saliva, and it will spoil and rot. If this feed is left in place, animals will not consume it. Silage left in the feed bunk and not consumed quickly is especially susceptible to spoilage and will not be eaten. Wasted, spilled, and rotten feed is a breeding ground for flies and attracts vermin like mice and rats.
Bunks and feeders should be designed to reduce wasted feed.
Bunks and feeders should be cleaned on a regular basis so spoiled or rotten feed can be removed.
Do not feed animals on the ground. It is a common practice, but there is no greater source of waste than feeding an animal on the ground. Although this might be acceptable with beef cows or sheep on the open range, or even horses, it is not acceptable to feed animals on the ground near a stream. This sort of waste also contributes to the creation of mud in pastures and paddocks.
Use Feed Ingredients High in Nutrient Availability
The availability of individual nutrients can vary from feedstuff to feedstuff; for example phytate-bound phosphorus in cereal grains. Ruminants can utilize phytate-phosphorus but horses and pigs cannot. Pig farmers often add an enzyme, phytase, to swine diets to make the phosphorus more availalable. This reduces the amount of phosphorus supplement needed and also reduced the phosphorus excreted in manure. It is important for producers to choose feedstuffs that have nutrients high in bioavailability. This means that nutrients present in feedstuffs are readily available and utilized by the animal. Related: Managing dietary phosphorus…
Authors
Michael L. Westendorf and Carey A. Williams, Extension Specialists in Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. This article was originally published as Rutgers Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet FS 1064. Updated November 25, 2008.
Phosphorus is required in the diet of animals, but if overfed or wasted, can contaminate the environment and water supplies. Cereal grains fed to livestock contain phytate-bound phosphorus. Phytate-bound phosphorous is digestible by ruminant animals such as cows, sheep, and goats, but it cannot be digested by single-stomached animals, such as pigs and chickens. Phytate consists of a carbon ring structure with balanced phosphate groups surrounding the ring. Since horses are a hind gut fermenter, they are able to process the phosphorus much like ruminant animals.
Since phytate-bound phosphorous is unavailable to pigs, chickens, and other single stomached animals, phosphorous from other sources is supplemented to meet the needs of the animal. The extra phytate-bound phosphorus will be unavailable and excreted in the manure.
Reducing the proportion of cereal grains in the diet will usually reduce the amount of phosphorus fed. However, for pigs and chickens, and there are few economic alternatives to cereal grains. Plant breeders are working to develop feed grains lower in phytate content and higher in available phosphorus.
Phytase in the Feed
An enzyme called phytase can be included with the diet. Phytase will break down phytate and release digestible phosphorus. Mixing phytase (commercially available) in the diet will reduce the phosphorus required in supplements.
Interactions Between Nutrients
Another factor affecting phosphorus availability is the presence of other nutrients in the diet. Overfeeding calcium can limit the availability of phosphorus. Calcium and other nutrients should be fed in balance so as not to disrupt the availability of phosphorus.
Calcium:Phosphorus Ratio for Horses
Horses are a bit unique; they require calcium and phosphorus to be in a specific ratio in the diet. Young growing horses, as well as lactating mares, should receive a Ca:P ratio of 2:1, while mature horses not reproducing can get by with a 1:1 ratio. Calcium should never be fed at a level lower than phosphorus because phosphorus will tend to interfere with calcium absorption into bone. Horses at maintenance require .17% phosphorus in the diet and .24% Ca. The highest levels of phosphorus are needed in reproducing mares (.34%). Typical horse diets approach 2 to 3 times the required level of phosphorus, which can be detrimental to the environment. This high phosphorus level is partially due to the estimated Ca:P ratio in alfalfa hay being 6:1. Many horse owners try to counteract this by adding more phosphorus to the diets. Many equine supplements already contain more phosphorus than is necessary. There are also phosphorus concerns for ruminant animals such as cows, sheep, goats, and etc.
Ruminants and Phosphorus
Ruminant animals have a phytate enzyme produced naturally within the rumen that breaks down phytate-bound phosphorus and makes it available to the animal. According to the National Research Council, a lactating dairy cow requires between .35 and .40% phosphorus in the diet. Previous dairy feeding practices included as high as .55% or .60% phosphorus in the diet. This would mean an excess of 25 to 30 pounds fed to a cow in a normal lactation. If you multiply this over a dairy herd with 100 cows, then nearly 3,000 pounds extra phosphorous would be fed over the course of a year. Some dairy farmers think that phosphorus is a mineral required for proper reproductive function. While phosphorous is indeed important for normal bodily functions and is important for reproduction just as all nutrients are important for reproduction, there is no special link between phosphorus and reproduction in a cow. Most dairy farmers have already reduced phosphorus in their diets to levels given by the National Research Council.
Diets should be managed to reduce nitrogen (N) losses. Protein is the chief N source in the diet, and N is the nutrient we are most concerned with. If a growing pig requires 22% protein in the diet and is fed 25% protein, then the excess (containing N) is going to be lost. Some N is going to be lost in the feces, and some that is absorbed is going to be lost as urea in the urine. Conversely, if a pig requires 22% protein, and is only fed 18% protein, then that animal’s production will be limited to the 18% level. In this case other nutrients in the diet will be in excess and cannot be utilized efficiently. Nitrogen feeding strategies are different for all livestock species.
Dietary Nitrogen Management for Ruminants
Ruminants (cow, sheep, goat, etc.) have a requirement for proteins that are quickly degraded in the rumen, called degradable intake protein (DIP). They also require proteins less quickly degraded or undegradable in the rumen, undegradble intake protein (UIP). If too much UIP protein is fed, then some of that excess will probably be excreted in the feces. On the other hand, if too much degradable protein is fed, there will be too much absorption of nitrogen into the blood supply and it will be lost in the urine as urea. Most research has shown that lactating dairy cows require about 32% to 38% undegradable protein in the diet, with the remainder being made up as degradable protein.
With non-ruminant animals, like chickens, horses, and pigs, individual amino acids are the basis of diet protein formulation. (Protein is composed of individual nitrogen-containing amino acids). A ruminant has a microbial population that produces essential amino acids in the rumen, so there is less focus on amino acids for them. In the case of pigs, horses, and chickens each individual amino acid is important. Lysine is usually the first limiting amino acid when feeding pigs and horses, and methionine is usually first limiting with chickens. Commonly used feeds are limiting in these amino acids and must be supplemented through balancing with other ingredients or by adding commercially-available crystalline amino acids to the diet.
Runoff from livestock barnyards and feedlots can kill fish and cause algae blooms in lakes and streams. A Vegetative Treatment System (VTS) can be an economical alternative to retention (holding) ponds for controlling runoff from a livestock waste facility.
A Vegetative Treatment System (VTS) refers to a combination of treatment steps for managing runoff. It treats runoff by settling, infiltration, and nutrient use. Individual components of a VTS include, a settling structure, an outlet structure, a distribution system, and a Vegetative Treatment Area, when put together we consider it a Vegetative Treatment System.
Vegetative Treatment Area
A Vegetative Treatment Area (VTA) is an area of perennial vegetation, such as a grass or a forage. The VTA is used to treat runoff from a feedlot or barnyard. It treats runoff by settling, infiltration, and nutrient use. A VTA is commonly confused with vegetative buffer (or filter) strips. A buffer strip is a narrow strip of vegetation (usually 30-60 feet wide), between cropland and a stream or other surface water. Runoff passes through buffers with some “filtering” of pollutants, but no attempt is made to control solids or flow. A VTS, however, collects runoff from a barnyard or feedlot, separates the solids from the liquids, and uniformly distributes the liquid over the vegetated area. Little or no runoff should leave a VTA.
The first step in a VTS is to collect runoff from a open lot or barnyard area in a sediment settling structure, usually a basin. Such basins are very effective for removing most solids. The runoff then flows into a VTA (Vegetative Treatment Area) whose soil treats and stores the runoff. Once the runoff is in the soil, natural processes allow plants to use the nutrients.
The general idea behind this technology is that the plants will take up the nutrients contained in the runoff and that natural factors will eliminate undesirable components such as pathogens. There are many different types of VTA’s, level, infiltration basins, sloped, sprinkler, dual and multiple systems, etc. To learn more about the different combinations, and when they are appropriate, see VTS System Types and Configurations.
How is a Vegetative Treatment Area Different From a Buffer Strip?
The critical aspect of the VTA is that is has been designed and sized to treat the runoff nutrients generated by the lot–letting runoff flow uncontrolled across the nearest pasture or crop field is not likely to achieve the desired treatment. The runoff needs to be released in a controlled manner. This control is what differentiates a VTA from grass filter/buffer strips. Controls also need to be put in place to eliminate any discharge from the VTA.
Designing a Vegetated Treatment Area
VTA’s must be graded to achieve uniform distribution. To achieve this, the existing landscape will need to be altered (leveled, graded, terraced, etc). If the site requires a great deal of work to create a functional VTA, the costs will obviously be higher than a site that requires only minimal alteration. Essentially, the VTA replaces the holding pond for storing (and utilizing) the nutrients and the liquid volume. In a holding pond this is impounded in a pond, in the VTA, the storage is a fraction of the available water holding capacity in the root zone.
Nitrogen Removal
The percent of the nitrogen removed from the runoff is directly related to the size of the VTA in relation to the size of the feedlot or barnyard as well as the distance that the runoff flows across the VTA. Increases in size of the VTA and flow distance remove more nitrogen. Up to 80% removal can be expected, depending on the design used. Maintaining the system so that the flow is uniform across the VTA, rather than becoming channelized, is also important to the performance of the system. Regular harvesting of the vegetation from the VTA preserves its ability to remove nutrients. Grazing a VTA is not acceptable, as this does not remove nutrients from the system. For more information on technical and design information on VTS, see some outside links to VTS Resources and some frequently asked questions about large CAFO VTS’s.
Phosphorus Removal
Phosphorus removal is directly related to solids removal. One literature review that summarized a large number of research projects, found an average of 70% phosphorus removal. Use of a solids settling basin before the runoff enters the VTA will result in a much lower amount of phosphorus that needs to be treated by the VTA. The settling basin does need to be cleaned out on a regular basis and the material land applied appropriately or utilized in another manner. If solids are not settled out prior to entering the VTA, the maintenance of the VTA itself is increased and the solids have potential to damage the vegetation.
The most common application for VTAs, in the past, have been for smaller, unregulated feedlots. Interest in their use for larger, permitted operations is growing and there is a body of evidence to suggest that a properly engineered and maintained VTS can perform as well as conventional treatments. Their use, as with any other technology is likely to be an individual decision dependent on site specific factors, interests and skills of the operator, and acceptance by regulators.
There are also several Webcasts and Virtual Tours of VTS systems available if you would like to see more in-depth discussions or take a tour of some actual systems.
Page developed and maintained by Chris Henry and Rick Koelsch, University of Nebraska Extension
Page reviewed by: Mark Rice, North Carolina State University
Nitrogen and phosphorus from agriculture sources can affect water quality. These nutrients are required for plant and animal growth, but too much in agricultural runoff can result in environmental and health concerns. This fact sheet provides some guidelines to help livestock producers, especially those on small farms, reduce nitrogen and phosphorus losses by monitoring and/or changing feeding and management practices. This can result in less waste and ultimately a healthier, cleaner, and safer environment. Wasted feed and wasted nutrients also represent wasted money for the farm.
Nutrient Balance on Small Farms
Nutrient inputs on a farm consist of feed, animals, irrigation water, fertilizer, legume nitrogen, etc. Outputs are meat, milk, animals, crops, and manure. When inputs exceed outputs, losses will be present in feed or barnyard waste, in manure, and in lot runoff, etc. These losses may result in excess nutrient storage in the soil. Nutrients may leach through the soil (nitrate) into ground water or run off the soil surface (phosphorus and nitrogen) and directly transported to surface waters.
Each farm should be seen as a complete system or cycle with inputs, outputs, storage, losses, and recycling all taking place. To illustrate, a 120-cow dairy farm will require 29.2 tons of nitrogen and 2.6 tons of phosphorus per year. Outputs (meat, milk, fiber, etc.) will be 6.9 tons of nitrogen and .8 tons of phosphorus, resulting in 22.3 tons of nitrogen and 1.8 tons of phosphorus for disposal, usually through spreading on available land. Similar calculations can be made for all livestock species. See “Whole Farm Nutrient Balance“…
If nutrients are overfed, or if feeding is mismanaged on an individual farm, this will result in more nutrients to manage in manure or as spoiled feed. While these nutrients can be applied to crop or hay ground to raise feed, it is important to try and keep this recycling loop as balanced as possible to avoid build-up of excess nutrients. Proper animal feeding and management practices can ensure that feed nutrients are not wasted, not overfed, and feed efficiency will be optimized on the farm.
Feeding Management
Feeding a balanced diet, avoiding overfeeding, and providing abundant supplies of cool, clean, and pure water will help to optimize feed and nutrient use on an animal farm. One way to understand nutrient requirements is to imagine a stave barrel. Only when all staves making up the barrel are the same length will water stay in the barrel. If all staves are 3 feet long, all the water will stay in the barrel. However, if one stave is a foot and a half long, then all the water will run out of the barrel to the level of a foot and a half. (See Figure below.)
CC2.5 LPELC
That is exactly what is happening with a balanced diet. If all nutrients are in a perfect balance, then there will be no excess and no wastage. It is impossible for all nutrients to be in a perfect balance in commercial or practical diets, but we want to come close to meeting an animal’s nutrient requirements. If the diet is balanced except for one underfed nutrient, then the entire production of the animal will be limited to the level of that “limiting nutrient” and all other nutrients will be wasted.
Overfeeding can be harmful to animals and to the environment. Animals that become overconditioned or obese may be unproductive and at greater risk of health problems. Excess feed is often wasted and may remain in the feeding area, become contaminated, and end up in the manure pile. Water is the most abundant, cheapest, and least understood of all nutrients required for livestock production. Water is of concern whenever it is in short supply or contamination is suspected. If subfreezing temperatures turn water into a frozen nutrient, it will mean trouble for domestic livestock. Distress is often brought on by cold wet winter weather requiring an animal’s digestive system and metabolic processes to function at peak efficiency to convert feedstuffs to energy so that they can remain warm, healthy, and productive.
Conversely, in hot summer weather, water is essential to the animal as well. It serves to cool the animal and works as a solvent or buffer for chemical reactions in the body. When the weather is hot in the summer, an animals’ requirement for water will increase. A lactating dairy cow requires on the average between 15 and 35 gallons of water per day; non-lactating dairy and beef cows require about 15 gallons per day; an adult horse will consume up to 15 gallons per day, which will increase 2 to 3 times when exercising; an adult sheep between 1 ½ and 3 gallons a day; adult swine from 3 to 5 gallons per day; and adult hens about a pint.
A quick rule of thumb is that for every 2 pounds of dry feed intake, an animal should receive one gallon of water. This will vary with stress, weather conditions, heat, cold, disease, productive state, work, exercise, etc., as well as the water and salt content of the feed. Often the first sign that water consumption is inadequate is when animals stop eating. Water is essential to maintain adequate feed consumption.
How does this affect nutrient management?
If we want our animals to reach maximum levels of production, then they will only have optimum feed intake if they receive adequate amounts water. Level of salt in the water or the diet can influence water requirements as can the presence of heavy metals, nitrates, microbes, and algae. Water is not related to runoff or contamination on the farm in the same way that overfeeding or imbalanced diets are, but water influences the ability of animals to use feed. If water is inadequate or contaminated, then animals will use diets less efficiently, eat less, be less productive, and may excrete more nutrients in waste.
How Do I Feed My Livestock to Avoid Waste and Maximize Efficiency?
Check out the list of helpful feed management tips for practical ways to manage feed and nutrients. Some of the topics on the page include:
Feeding animals is both an art and a science. It is a science influenced by years of research and it is an art developed by centuries of practical experience. Healthy animals fed balanced diets and provided with abundant supplies of fresh water will be the most productive. These animals will be the most profitable to the farmer and the most efficient users of nutrients.
References
National Research Council. 1989, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Horses, Poultry, Beef, Swine, and Dairy. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Ralston, S. L. 1993. Analysis of Feeds and Forages for Horses. Rutgers Cooperative Extension. NJAES. Factsheet – FS714.
Singer, J. W. and D. L. Lee. 1999. Feed and Forage Testing Labs. Rutgers Cooperative Extension. NJAES. Factsheet – FS935.
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick
Cooperating Agencies
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and County Boards of Chosen Freeholders.
Rutgers Cooperative Extension, a unit of Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, is an equal opportunity program provider and employer. Published: June 2007
Authors: Michael L. Westendorf and Carey A. Williams, Extension Specialists in Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. This article was originally published as Rutgers Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet FS 1064. Updated November 25, 2008.
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